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		<title>Droits de la femme en Islam : la stratégie des «  « meilleures pratiques »</title>
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				<category><![CDATA[Shariah]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[droit musulman]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[droits de la femme]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[droits humains]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Fiqh]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Islamic]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Oumma.com 6 mars 2009 Droits de la femme en Islam : la stratégie des « meilleures pratiques » (1/2) Khalid Chraibi Dans tous les pays musulmans, à l’exception de la Turquie, le statut de la femme est régi par les règles du droit musulman. Parmi la panoplie de règles juridiques qui définissent ce statut, il est possible d&#8217;identifier, [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com&amp;blog=4411590&amp;post=94&amp;subd=umaralkhayyam&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Oumma.com</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>6 mars 2009</strong><strong></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Droits de la femme en Islam : la stratégie des </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">« meilleures pratiques » (1/2)</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Khalid Chraibi</span></strong><strong></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">Dans tous les pays musulmans, à l’exception de la Turquie, le statut de la femme est régi par les règles du droit musulman. Parmi la panoplie de règles juridiques qui définissent ce statut, il est possible d&#8217;identifier, pour chaque rubrique, des règles spécifiques, appliquées dans un pays donné, qui octroient plus de droits aux femmes ou qui protègent mieux leurs intérêts. D’après les organisations de défense des droits des femmes, l&#8217;application de ces règles (dénommées par elles <strong>« meilleures pratiques »</strong> du droit musulman de la famille) contribuerait à réformer le droit de la famille &#8220;de l&#8217;intérieur&#8221;, dans le cadre de la charia, et à le rapprocher de manière significative des normes internationales contemporaines.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">L&#8217;unité de la charia dans la diversité des rites</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Contrairement à ce que beaucoup de musulmans pensent, la charia n&#8217;est pas la même dans l’ensemble des pays musulmans. Elle varie même de manière considérable d’un pays à l’autre, et d’une époque à l’autre. Il ne s&#8217;agit pas d&#8217;une dérive, mais d&#8217;un choix délibéré effectué par les fondateurs des grandes écoles juridiques, et entériné par les califes et leurs successeurs, dès les premiers siècles de l&#8217;Islam.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span> </span>Ainsi, lorsque Malik ibn Anas eut préparé, à la demande du calife Abu Jaafar al Mansur, sa compilation de règles de droit intitulée « al-Muatta », le calife lui proposa de faire adopter cet ouvrage dans l’ensemble des territoires du califat pour servir de code de droit musulman de référence. La justice y serait ainsi rendue de manière uniforme, en appliquant partout les mêmes règles. Mais, Malik s’y opposa, semble-t-il, expliquant que les différentes communautés musulmanes avaient déjà adopté chacune ses propres règles et sa méthodologie d’élaboration du fiqh. Il estimait qu’il valait mieux les laisser libres de leurs choix.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les fondateurs des quatre grandes écoles de pensée juridique sunnite (Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, Chafi’i, Ibn Hanbal) ont, d&#8217;ailleurs, chacun emphatiquement souligné, dans ses enseignements à ses disciples, qu’il n’était en aucun cas le détenteur d’une Vérité absolue en matière d’interprétation des règles du droit musulman. Ses interprétations des dispositions de la charia ne devaient en aucun cas être considérées comme des données définitives, qui lieraient les musulmans en tous lieux et en tous temps. Si une école de pensée juridique différente présentait une meilleure interprétation d’une règle, il fallait en tenir compte. C’est ce qui explique l’ouverture d’esprit et la richesse des travaux des juristes musulmans, pendant des siècles, jusqu’à ce que les autorités politiques décrètent la « clôture de l’ijtihad » au 10è siècle.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les juristes musulmans s&#8217;enorgueillissent, aujourd&#8217;hui, de la diversité des règles développées par les différentes écoles juridiques islamiques, la décrivant comme une bénédiction du Ciel. D’après eux, toutes ces règles sont conformes aux prescriptions coraniques et à la Sunnah, malgré leurs différences.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Mais, cette diversité d&#8217;interprétations complique de manière considérable le travail des associations de défense des droits des femmes, quand elles doivent oeuvrer dans des environnements juridiques aussi différents que ceux de l’Arabie Saoudite ou du Maroc, par exemple, qui se réclament pourtant tous de la charia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Deux exemples contrastés : l’Arabie Saoudite et le Maroc</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">D’après un rapport soumis par un groupe de femmes s’identifiant comme « Women for reform » (Femmes pour la Réforme) au « Comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination à l’égard des femmes » de l’ONU (CEDAW) en 2007, les femmes saoudiennes se plaignent d’être confrontées de manière routinière, dans leur vie quotidienne, à de grandes difficultés, du fait des facteurs suivants :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">- Il existe une ségrégation totale entre les sexes, avec toutes les conséquences négatives qui s’ensuivent pour les femmes, dans tous les aspects de leur vie</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">- Pendant toute leur existence, les femmes saoudiennes vivent littéralement « sous la tutelle » d’un mâle, qu&#8217;il s&#8217;agisse d&#8217;un père, d&#8217;un mari ou d&#8217;un proche parent</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">- « Sans la permission de son « tuteur », une femme ne peut ni étudier, ni accéder aux soins médicaux, ni se marier, ni voyager à l’étranger, ni gérer des affaires, ni faire pratiquement quoi que ce soit de significatif… »</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">En réponse à ces observations, les autorités saoudiennes expliquent que la charia a défini des règles différentes s&#8217;appliquant à chacun des deux sexes. Par conséquent, en appliquant à chacun des deux sexes les règles de la charia qui le concernent, elles ne bafouent les droits d’aucun individu, qu’il soit mâle ou femelle. La charia présente, tout simplement, une conception des droits humains qui diffère de celle des pays occidentaux.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les autorités saoudiennes ajoutent que le Coran et la Sunna contiennent des règles claires et incontournables, visant à s’assurer que les femmes jouissent des mêmes droits et responsabilités que les hommes, sur une base d’égalité. « Si une femme est victime de discrimination ou d’une injustice, les lois du pays exigent qu’on la rétablisse dans ses droits. »</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">En contraste, au Maroc, le Code de Statut Personnel de 1957, adopté au lendemain de l’indépendance, a été entièrement refondu en 2004, à la suite de plusieurs décennies de lutte des associations féminines, pour tenir compte de l’évolution de la société marocaine dans le demi-siècle écoulé. Le Code, dans sa nouvelle mouture, a complètement redéfini le statut juridique de la femme au sein de la famille et de la société, le rapprochant considérablement des normes internationales.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Il place la famille sous la responsabilité conjointe des deux époux, permet à la femme d’agir comme son propre tuteur, et fixe à 18 ans l’âge minimum de mariage des personnes des deux sexes. Il impose des conditions draconiennes au mariage dans le cadre du régime de polygamie et encourage l’épouse à inclure dans le contrat de mariage, si elle le désire, une clause pour interdire un second mariage de l’époux. Il place la répudiation sous un strict contrôle judiciaire et exige la répartition équitable des biens du couple avant que le divorce ne puisse être finalisé.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les oulémas et juristes marocains associés à la refonte du Code soulignent que toutes ses dispositions ont été basées sur une lecture attentive, minutieuse et complète de la charia, dans toute sa complexité, en tenant compte des « meilleures pratiques » juridiques en vigueur dans les autres pays musulmans.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Pourtant, à la suite de cette refonte du Code, les autorités marocaines ont progressivement levé les différentes réserves qu’elles avaient précédemment exprimées au sujet de l’application sur le territoire marocain de certaines dispositions de différentes conventions internationales relatives aux droits de la femme et de l’enfant « qui pouvaient être incompatibles avec les prescriptions religieuses ».</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">La stratégie des « meilleures pratiques »</span></strong><span style="font-size:14pt;"><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Confrontées à un tel éventail d’interprétations dans les règles appliquées au statut de la femme dans les différents pays musulmans, les organisations de défense des droits des femmes comprennent parfaitement la vanité d&#8217;essayer de remettre en cause les interprétations qui sont à la base des règles appliquées dans un pays donné.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Ainsi, bien que les cas saoudien et marocain soient représentatifs de situations extrêmement différentes, aussi bien les autorités saoudiennes que marocaines sont convaincues que les dispositions juridiques appliquées au statut de la femme sur leur territoire sont parfaitement conformes aux prescriptions de la charia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les ONG féminines telles que « Collectif 95 Maghreb-Egalité » ou « Sisters in Islam » de Malaisie, qui ont étudié ces questions de manière approfondie, proposent une nouvelle stratégie pour faire progresser la cause des droits des femmes musulmanes :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>« Si toutes ces règles sont également valables dans la charia, et si certaines d&#8217;entre elles accordent plus de droits aux femmes ou protègent mieux leurs intérêts, n&#8217;est-ce pas ces règles (dénommées les &#8220;meilleures pratiques&#8221; du droit musulman) qui devraient s&#8217;appliquer en droit de la famille, en ce début du 21è siècle, de préférence aux règles qui sont moins favorables aux droits des femmes ? Pourquoi les femmes devraient-elles faire les frais de ces différences d&#8217;interprétation, qui sont clairement le fait des hommes ? » </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A l&#8217;appui de ce dernier point, les ONG féminines rappellent que les Codes de Statut Personnel des différents pays musulmans font périodiquement l&#8217;objet de révision (Egypte 2000, Mauritanie 2001, Maroc 2004, Algérie 2005), alors qu&#8217;ils se basent sur les prescriptions coraniques et la Sunnah. Si les règles présentées dans ces codes ont été périodiquement changées, n&#8217;est-ce pas là la preuve que <strong>beaucoup de dispositions contenues dans les codes de droit de la famille relèvent du choix des hommes, et non de prescriptions religieuses ?</strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Oumma.com</strong><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>20 mars 2009</strong><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:16pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Droits de la femme en Islam : la stratégie des</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;"> « meilleures pratiques » (2/2)</span></strong><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><a name="OLE_LINK207"><span><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Kh</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">alid Chraibi</span></strong><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Exemples des « meilleures pratiques »</span></strong><span> </span> </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les « meilleures pratiques » de droit musulman de la famille n’ont rien de révolutionnaire. Par définition, elles ne pourraient pas l’être, sauf à titre comparatif entre pays musulmans, puisqu’elles doivent toutes être conformes à la charia, et faire déjà partie du code de droit de la famille appliqué dans un pays musulman se rattachant à l’un des quatre rites sunnites. Elles se reconnaissent au fait qu’elles octroient plus de droits à la femme et à l’enfant, ou qu’elles protègent mieux leurs intérêts que d’autres règles de droit musulman relatives aux mêmes rubriques.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Afin d’illustrer ce que les « meilleures pratiques » recouvrent, l’association « Sisters in Islam » (SIS) de Malaisie en a dressé une liste représentative, basée sur les différents codes nationaux actuellement en vigueur dans le monde musulman, en les regroupant par rubrique.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Age du mariage</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">18 ans pour les garçons et les filles (<strong>Maroc</strong>, Droit de la famille, 2004)</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Consentement des parties</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Aucun mariage ne sera valable sans le consentement explicite des deux époux, exprimé librement par chacun d’eux (<strong>Tanzanie, Tunisie, Maroc</strong>, etc.)</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Wali (Tuteur)</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">En <strong>Tunisie</strong>, le mari et la femme ont le droit de contracter eux-mêmes leur mariage, ou de donner une procuration à leurs représentants.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong> (sous le rite hanafite) : aucun wali n’est requis pour les femmes de rite hanafite qui ont atteint la puberté.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Cameroon , Fiji, Gambia, Turquie, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyztan</strong> : aucun wali n’est requis.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Témoins au mariage</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Au <strong>Sénégal</strong>, deux témoins adultes sont requis, un par époux (sans spécification de sexe).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Polygamie</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">En <strong>Tunisie</strong>, elle est interdite. Au <strong>Maroc</strong>, le Code de 2004 impose des conditions draconiennes et encourage l’épouse à inclure dans le contrat de mariage, si elle le désire, une clause pour interdire un second mariage de l’époux</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Nouchouz (désobéïssance de l’épouse)</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Turquie, Indonésie, Tunisie</strong> : Egalité entre les époux dans les décisions relatives à la famille.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Divorce</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Tunisie</strong> : Le divorce est prononcé par le juge uniquement. L’homme et la femme ont les mêmes bases pour réclamer le divorce.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Indonésie</strong> : L’époux, marié sous la loi musulmane, doit fournir à la Cour de la charia une notification écrite de son intention de divorce. Les six raisons pour divorcer s’appliquent de la même manière à chacun des époux. Une procédure de réconciliation doit être appliquée. Dans le cas où elle échoue, le divorce est prononcé à titre définitif.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Pension alimentaire</span></span></strong> :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">En <strong>Tunisie</strong>, l’épouse divorcée aux torts de son mari peut recevoir un montant forfaitaire, des biens mobiliers ou immobiliers ou des versements mensuels. Le montant de la pension est déterminé en tenant compte du niveau de vie auquel la femme était habituée durant son mariage.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">En <strong>Turquie</strong>, la partie aux moindres torts et qui va subir un préjudice du fait du divorce peut demander une compensation raisonnable, payée mensuellement ou en un seul versement.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="font-size:14pt;">Droits de garde des enfants</span></span></strong><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;"> </span></strong>:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Cameroun et Républiques d’Asie Centrale</strong> : La garde peut être confiée à l’un ou l’autre des parents, en tenant compte des meilleurs intérêts de l’enfant.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Tunisie</strong> : Durant le mariage, les deux parents ont des droits égaux de garde. En cas de divorce, la Cour décide de la garde en fonction des meilleurs intérêts de l’enfant. Si elle est confiée à la mère, celle-ci l’exerce également en matière de voyage, d’éducation et des questions financières.<span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Portée des « meilleures pratiques »</span></strong><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les dispositions juridiques qualifiées de « meilleures pratiques » peuvent sembler parfaitement banales, compte tenu des normes du droit de la famille, en ce début du 21è siècle. Mais, d’après les associations féminines, leur application améliorerait de manière considérable le cadre de vie de millions de femmes et d’enfants dans le monde musulman.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Dans un premier temps, elle réduirait de manière considérable les excès dont les autorités font preuve, dans de nombreux pays, dans l’interprétation des règles religieuses, au détriment des droits des femmes. Ces excès, fortement médiatisés au cours des dernières années, sont illustrés par l’interdiction faite aux femmes de conduire un véhicule, parce que ce serait contraire à la charia ; l’imposition d’une stricte ségrégation entre les sexes dans les lieux publics, les hôpitaux et le système éducatif ; l’obligation de porter des vêtements d’un type particulier tels que le hijab, le niqab ou la « burqua » ; ou même, parfois, l’interdiction d’exercer toute activité professionnelle…</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A plus long terme, l’adoption des « meilleures pratiques » jetterait les bases pour la redéfinition du statut juridique des femmes, dans le monde musulman, en leur donnant les moyens de se protéger contre les abus auxquels elles sont parfois confrontées dans leur vie quotidienne, qu’il s’agisse de mauvais traitements, de violence conjugale, de répudiation, de polygamie, de pratiques discriminatoires sur le lieu de travail ou de harcèlement sexuel…</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Obstacles à l’adoption des « meilleures pratiques »</span></strong><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">La stratégie des « meilleures pratiques » bouscule de nombreux intérêts établis, dans les pays où elle cherche à s’appliquer, comme en Malaisie ou au Maghreb. Ses défenseurs se heurtent, donc, à l’opposition de nombreuses institutions et corps constitués.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les autorités politiques de nombreux pays ne souhaitent guère perdre une partie de leur emprise sur la moitié de la population, en dotant les femmes de règles qui leur permettraient de mieux défendre leurs intérêts dans la société, et réduiraient donc leur dépendance vis-à-vis des pouvoirs établis.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les oulémas ont du mal à accepter l’idée d’une intrusion dans leur législation de nouvelles règles de droit musulman, basées sur un autre rite que le leur, alors que toute leur éducation a été basée sur une tradition de rejet des autres rites, depuis des siècles.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les partis politiques, sachant qu’ils opèrent dans une société traditionnelle, rejettent par réflexe toute innovation touchant au domaine du sacré, avec la conviction qu’ils reflètent fidèlement les désirs de leurs électeurs.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les partis fondamentalistes, pour leur part, ont fait de la religion, et en particulier du slogan « application de la charia », leur cheval de bataille pour accéder au pouvoir. Ils voient donc d’un mauvais œil toute innovation en matière de droit musulman, et la qualifient de « bid’a » à rejeter, pour éviter toute concurrence sur leur fief.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Les femmes elles-mêmes ont été conditionnées, dans les sociétés traditionnelles, à penser que le droit musulman (qu’elles confondent à tort avec les prescriptions coraniques) est immuable. Elles sont convaincues, dans leur grande majorité, que tout changement en matière de droit de la famille doit être rejeté, parce que de tels changements ont pour seul objectif de greffer en terre musulmane les idées et pratiques de l’Occident.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Enfin, sur le plan international, les Etats musulmans auraient beaucoup de mal à se mettre d’accord sur l’adoption des « meilleures pratiques », à appliquer de manière conjointe et cohérente dans l’ensemble des pays musulmans. Pour ne pas être débordés sur leurs flancs par les pays plus conservateurs et par les partis fondamentalistes, ils préfèrent maintenir le statu quo.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:35.4pt;"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;">Application de la stratégie des « meilleures pratiques »</span></strong><span style="font-size:14pt;"><span> </span><strong><span> </span></strong></span><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Sur la base de leur expérience vécue en ce domaine, les ONG savent que la stratégie des « meilleures pratiques » du droit musulman de la famille n’a de chances de déboucher sur des résultats tangibles que si les associations féminines parviennent à persuader une majorité des acteurs politiques, économiques et sociaux du pays de l’intérêt, pour l’ensemble de la société, de l’adoption de ces « meilleures pratiques. »</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Cette action doit donc, nécessairement, englober tout l’éventail des composantes de la société, qu’il s’agisse des pouvoirs publics, des organisations syndicales, ou des corps constitués à caractère religieux comme le Conseil des Oulémas. Elle doit également pouvoir s’appuyer sur les vrais détenteurs du pouvoir, au sommet de l’Etat.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Dans l’application de cette stratégie, les associations féminines s’appuient, de plus en plus, sur des réseaux de coopération qu’elles ont tissés entre elles, sur le plan international. La stratégie des « meilleures pratiques » a ainsi été développée conjointement, sur le plan conceptuel, par le groupe maghrébin « Collectif 95 – Maghreb Egalité », qui regroupe les associations féminines les plus importantes du Maroc, d’Algérie et de Tunisie, et par « Sisters in Islam » de Malaisie.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Bibliographie</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Al_Qaradawi, Yusuf : Assahwa al_Islamiya, Le Caire, 1991</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:35.4pt;"><span lang="EN-GB">An-Na’im, Abdullahi A. : ed. Islamic Family Law in a changing world, London, Zed Books, 2002</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:35.4pt;"><span lang="EN-GB">Women for Reform (WFR): “Shadow report” from Saudi Arabia’s ad hoc group of women to CEDAW, 2007</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Saudi Arabia</span><span lang="EN-GB">: Official Government Report to CEDAW, 2007</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Maroc: Code de droit de la famille, 2004</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Collectif 95 Maghreb-Egalité : Dalil (guide) de l’égalité dans la famille au Maghreb, 2003</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a name="OLE_LINK180"></a><a name="OLE_LINK181"><span>Collectif 95 Maghreb-Egalité </span></a>: Cent mesures et dispositions pour une codification égalitaire des Codes de Statut Personnel, 1995</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3"><span><span lang="EN-GB">Freedom House: Women’s Rights in the Middle East and </span></span></a><span><span><span lang="EN-GB">North Africa</span></span></span><span><span><span lang="EN-GB">, 2005</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span><span><span lang="EN-GB">United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): The Arab Human Development Report 2005 – Towards the Rise of women in the Arab world, 2006</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span><span><span lang="EN-GB">Sisters In Islam</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (SIS): Best practices in family law</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Sisters In Islam (SIS): Guide to equality in the family in Malaysia</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Rand Corporation: “Best practices” Progressive family laws in Muslim countries, 2005</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Women Learning Partnership (WLP): Best practices in family law</span></p>
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		<title>Al-Ajami &#8211; Que dit vraiment le Coran ?</title>
		<link>http://umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com/2008/09/03/al-ajami-que-dit-vraiment-le-coran/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 03 Sep 2008 22:41:35 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>aster</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Shariah]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Commentaire au sujet de l&#8217;interview de M. Abou Nahla Al-Ajami, auteur du livre &#8220;Que dit vraiment le Coran ?&#8221; parue sur le site Oumma.com le 3 septembre 2008 Aujourd’hui, il y a un vif (faux) débat au sujet de la charia. Certains disent qu’elle est caractérisée par de nombreuses insuffisances, qu’il faut la réformer (c’est-à-dire [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com&amp;blog=4411590&amp;post=82&amp;subd=umaralkhayyam&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="spip">Commentaire au sujet de l&#8217;interview de M. Abou Nahla Al-Ajami, auteur du livre &#8220;Que dit vraiment le Coran ?&#8221; parue sur le site Oumma.com le 3 septembre 2008</p>
<p class="spip">Aujourd’hui, il y a un vif (faux) débat au sujet de la charia. Certains disent qu’elle est caractérisée par de nombreuses insuffisances, qu’il faut la réformer (c’est-à-dire la modifier) pour l’adapter aux règles du droit moderne en matière de droits humains, de droits de la femme, etc.</p>
<p class="spip">D’autres disent qu’elle a fait son temps, et qu’il faut simplement la réformer (comme on réforme un véhicule qu’on a cessé d’utiliser) pour lui substituer les règles du droit positif, tel qu’il s’est développé en Occident.</p>
<p class="spip">Faux débat, à mon sens, parce que la charia, c’est le droit des musulmans, et qu’à ce titre, on ne peut pas le réformer comme on réforme un vieux véhicule.</p>
<p class="spip">D’autant plus que ce n’est pas la charia qui pose problème, mais ce que les musulmans en ont fait, à la suite des interprétations qui ont été données par les uns et par les autres à différents versets, à travers les siècles et les différentes régions du monde,</p>
<p class="spip">Il est donc essentiel de revenir au message d’origine, celui de la Révélation, dont « l’unique but est de fournir des repères manifestes à l’homme en quête de sens. »</p>
<p class="spip">Comme l’expliquent tous les juristes musulmans, la charia est valable en tous temps et en tous lieux, à cause de son extraordinaire capacité d’adaptation aux circonstances les plus diverses.</p>
<p class="spip">C’est pour cela qu’il y a plusieurs rites (Abou Hanifa, Malik, Chafi’i, Ibn Hanbal, chi’a, etc.) qui existent dans différentes régions du monde, sans que nul juriste musulman ne s’étonne de la situation.</p>
<p class="spip">C’est pour cela que les droits humains, et les droits de la femme en particulier, sont interprétés de manière très différente d’un Etat à l’autre, d’un Code de la famille à un autre.</p>
<p class="spip">Si la charia fait montre d’une telle flexibilité, c’est parce qu’elle a surtout cherché à protéger les droits des faibles et des opprimés, des femmes, des enfants, des esclaves. Elle a montré la voie du progrès, elle a indiqué les moyens de changer les situations qui avaient besoin d’être réformées, mais elle n’a pas figé les situations, ni les solutions qui pouvaient leur être appliquées.</p>
<p class="spip">De ce point de vue, on peut affirmer en toute sérénité que la charia est parfaitement compatible avec le droit positif, dans ce qu’il a de meilleur en matière de protection des droits humains.</p>
<p class="spip">Mais, au cours de l’histoire, les dirigeants des communautés musulmanes ont favorisé l’application des interprétations qui répondaient le mieux à leurs objectifs sociaux, ou à leurs choix personnels, ou qui leur permettaient de consolider leur emprise sur la communauté qu’ils dirigeaient.</p>
<p class="spip">Ils ont institué l’ère du « taqlid » (imitation) qui a succédé au temps du « tajdid » (renouvellement) initié par la Révélation. Ils ont ainsi bloqué la dynamique sociale impulsée par la Révélation, pour lui donner toutes les caractéristiques d’une situation statique, figée.</p>
<p class="spip">Tout cela n’a rien d’étonnant, et n’est pas propre à la culture islamique, mais se retrouve dans l’histoire de toutes les cultures mondiales.</p>
<p class="spip">La civilisation humaine semble progresser en passant d’une situation de blocage à une autre, mais en empruntant une voie de progrès entre les deux. Celle qui ne trouve pas sa voie de progrès reste bloquée définitivement, jusqu’à son dépérissement total.</p>
<p class="spip">Cette proposition a été parfaitement illustrée par des études célèbres, telles que « Une étude de l’Histoire » d’Arnold Toynbee ou « La théorie des révolutions scientifiques » de Kuhn.</p>
<p class="spip">A cause de ce gel de la pensée novatrice musulmane pendant des siècles, les experts en droit musulman, élevés dans une tradition donnée, et auxquels on a inculqué le respect absolu de cette tradition, sont incapables d’envisager qu’il puisse exister une autre vision des choses.</p>
<p class="spip">Ils s’appuient sur un « hadith » attribué au Prophète, rapporté par al-Bokhary, et répété à tous les prêches du vendredi, selon lequel « toute innovation est une bid’a » qui conduit celui qui l’entreprend droit en enfer.</p>
<p class="spip">Un tel hadith conduit à un blocage total de la pensée humaine, contrairement à ce qui semble être l’enseignement fondamental de la Révélation, basé lui-même entièrement sur la remise en cause du statu quo qui existait en Arabie au 7ème siècle, et sur l’innovation dans tous les domaines où cela était requis.</p>
<p class="spip">Heureusement, aujourd’hui, de plus en plus de personnes ressentent le besoin de débloquer cette situation, de sortir du cycle du « taqlid », pour envisager une nouvelle ère de « tajdid » dans la culture islamique.</p>
<p class="spip">Mr al-Ajami appartient clairement à cette catégorie de novateurs, et son livre (si j’en juge par l’interview) devrait fournir des bases intéressantes pour que chacun d’entre nous puisse procéder à sa propre réflexion, de manière fructueuse, sur ces questions.</p>
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		<title>My favorite media links</title>
		<link>http://umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com/2008/08/23/my-favorite-media-links/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 23 Aug 2008 13:25:46 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>aster</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[International media links]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[USA Links : http://www.dailymotion.com/fr DAILYMOTION FRANCE http://www.dailymotion.com/us DAILYMOTION USA http://www.youtube.com/ YOUTUBE http://www.drudgereport.com/ DRUDGE REPORT http://www.nytimes.com NEW YORK TIMES WASHINGTON POST WASHINGTON TIMES Wall Street Journal Christian Science Monitor Los Angeles TIMES USA Today International Herald Tribune TIME MAG NEWSWEEK Business Week IndustryWeek FORBES MAG Fortune NEW YORKER Esquire Harpers.org Atlantic Monthly U.S. News Foreign Affairs [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com&amp;blog=4411590&amp;post=51&amp;subd=umaralkhayyam&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;" lang="EN-GB">USA</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;" lang="EN-GB"> Links</span></strong><span lang="EN-GB"> :</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/fr">http://www.dailymotion.com/fr</a> DAILYMOTION FRANCE</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/us">http://www.dailymotion.com/us</a> DAILYMOTION USA</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/">http://www.youtube.com/</a><span> </span>YOUTUBE </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.drudgereport.com/">http://www.drudgereport.com/</a> DRUDGE REPORT</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/">http://www.nytimes.com</a> NEW YORK TIMES </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">WASH</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">INGTON</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB"> POST</span></a></span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">WASH</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">INGTON</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB"> TIMES</span></a></span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.opinionjournal.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Wall Street Journal</span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=9211"><span lang="EN-GB">Christian Science Monitor</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.latimes.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">L</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">os </span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">A</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">ngeles</span><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB"> TIMES</span></a></span></strong></tt><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.usatoday.com/news/comment/debate.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">USA Today</span></a></span><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.iht.com/pages/opinion/index.php"><span lang="EN-GB">International Herald Tribune</span></a></span><span style="font-family:Verdana;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://time.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">TIME MAG</span></a></span></strong></tt><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.newsweek.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">NEWSWEEK</span></a></span></strong></tt><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.businessweek.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Business Week</span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.industryweek.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">IndustryWeek</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"> <span> </span></span><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"><span> </span></span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.forbes.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">FORBES MAG</span></a></span></strong></tt><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/"><span lang="EN-GB">Fortune</span></a></span><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.newyorker.com/"><span style="font-size:12pt;" lang="EN-GB">NEW YORKER</span></a></span></strong></tt><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;"> </span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.esquire.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Esquire</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.harpers.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Harpers.org</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Atlantic Monthly</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.usnews.com/usnews/home.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">U.S. News</span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.foreignaffairs.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Foreign Affairs</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.sciam.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Scientific American</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Nature</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"> </span><tt><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-GB"><span> </span></span></strong></tt></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a title="US Columnists" href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/columnists/"><span lang="EN-GB">US Columnists</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/">http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;" lang="EN-GB">UNITED KINGDOM</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;" lang="EN-GB"> Links</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/">http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/</a><span> </span>The Times (U.K.)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.ft.com/home/uk">http://www.ft.com/home/uk</a> Financial Times</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.economist.com/">http://www.economist.com/</a><span> </span>The Economist (U.K.) </span></p>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily      Mail &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/">Daily Mirror &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.ft.com/home/uk">Financial Times &#8211;      UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily Guardian.co.uk" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/">Guardian.co.uk</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Skynews - UK" href="http://news.sky.com/skynews/">Skynews &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British weekly" href="http://www.economist.com/">The Economist &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.independent.co.uk/">The Independent      &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://observer.guardian.co.uk/">The Observer      &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/">The      Times of London</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="This is London from Evening Standard" href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/home/"><span lang="EN-GB">This is London from Evening Standard</span></a></li>
</ul>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">UNITED KINGDOM</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">EXTERNAL LINKS</span></strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://mailonline.newspaperdirect.com/epaper/viewer.aspx" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Daily Mail</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.dailystar.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Daily Star</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.express.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Express</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://5cc.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Five Chinese Crackers</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Guardian Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Guardian Religion</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Independent</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.islamonline.net/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">IslamOnline</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.islamophobia-watch.com/islamophobia-watch/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Islamophobia Watch</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.presswise.org.uk/display_page.php?id=83" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The MediaWise Trust</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Mirror</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.mpacuk.org/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">MPACUK</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.muslimnews.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Muslim News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.themuslimweekly.com/default.aspx" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Muslim Weekly</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.newssniffer.co.uk/blog/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Newssniffer</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.religionnewsblog.com/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">ReligionNewsBlog.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> [RN] </span><a href="http://www.rsf.org/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Reporters Without Borders</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.schnews.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">SchNEWS</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Searchlight</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/index.php" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Socialist Worker</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.statewatch.org/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Statewatch</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.thesun.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Sun</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/index.jhtml" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Telegraph</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Times</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.ukwatch.net/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">UK Watch</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://virtuallyislamic.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Virtually Islamic</span></a><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> <strong>THINK TANKS</strong> </span><a href="http://www.cps.org.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Centre for Policy Studies</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Chatham House</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.demos.co.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Demos</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.fabian-society.org.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Fabian Society</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.fpc.org.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Foreign Policy Centre</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.ippr.org.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">IPPR</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Policy Exchange</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.rcsint.org/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">Royal Commonwealth Society</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><a href="http://www.smith-institute.org.uk/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">The Smith Institute</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;">FRANCE Links</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.travlang.com/news/online-newspapers-french.html">http://www.travlang.com/news/online-newspapers-french.html</a> France papers links</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/france.htm">http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/france.htm</a> France newspapers links</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://lt.webwombat.com/lt.php?3320" target="_blank">Le Monde</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://lt.webwombat.com/lt.php?3318" target="_blank">Le Figaro</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=10101">Le Monde Diplomatique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=7200">Nouvel Obs</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.lepoint.fr/">Le Point</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://lt.webwombat.com/lt.php?3313" target="_blank">L&#8217;Express</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=4111">L&#8217;Expansion</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a title="Journal d’infos en ligne" href="http://www.mediapart.fr/une">Médiapart &#8211; France</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://lt.webwombat.com/lt.php?3303" target="_blank">Le Canard Enchaîne</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.lesechos.fr/">Les Echos</a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www.laviefinanciere.com/">LaVieFinanciere.com</a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=7632">SVM &#8211; Actu</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=6539">SVM &#8211; Matériels PC</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=2429">Techno-Science</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=8459">Cité des Sciences</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=8963">Futura-Sciences</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=15024">Yahoo Science</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;">MOROCCO Links</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><a href="http://www.leconomiste.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color:black;">L&#8217;économiste</span></a> Maroc</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><a href="http://www.lanouvelletribune.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color:black;">La nouvelle tribune</span></a></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><a href="http://www.marocnet.net.ma/vieeco/" target="_blank"><span style="color:black;">La vie économique</span></a></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><a href="http://www.lagazettedumaroc.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color:black;">La gazette du Maroc</span></a></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><a href="http://www.maroc-hebdo.press.ma/" target="_blank"><span style="color:black;">Maroc-hebdo Internetional </span></a></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lejournal-hebdo.com/" target="_blank">www.lejournal-hebdo.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.telquel-online.com/" target="_blank">www.telquel-online.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/presse/"><span lang="FR">http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/presse/</span></a></span><span> </span>Revue de la presse du Maroc par l’Ambassade de France</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/imaroc/listeurl.cfm?code=1">http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/imaroc/listeurl.cfm?code=1</a> Toute la presse du Maroc en ligne</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span> </span> <!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--> <!--[endif]--></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;" lang="EN-GB">INTERNATIONAL Links</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=12555"><span lang="EN-GB">Jeune Afrique</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Verdana;"><a href="http://www1.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/articlelist?catkey=-2128669051&amp;DaysActive=1"><span lang="EN-GB">Times of India</span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.amin.org/look/amin/press.htm">http://www.amin.org/look/amin/press.htm</a> Amin links to international &amp; Arab media </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;" lang="EN-GB">ARAB MEDIA Links</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.arabnews.com/">http://www.arabnews.com/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.asharqalawsat.com/" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB">www.asharqalawsat.com</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://asharqalawsat.com/english/default.asp">http://asharqalawsat.com/english/default.asp</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=13800"><span lang="EN-GB">Al-Ahram Weekly</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://nci.nawaat.org/newsreader.php?id=1223"><span lang="EN-GB">Alarabiya</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.amin.org/look/amin/press.htm">http://www.amin.org/look/amin/press.htm</a> Amin links to international &amp; Arab media </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.al-bab.com/default.htm">http://www.al-bab.com/default.htm</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.albawaba.com/en/main/">http://www.albawaba.com/en/main/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.alhewar.com/NewspaperLinks2.html">http://www.alhewar.com/NewspaperLinks2.html</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.arabo.com/links/Arab_Newspapers/">http://www.arabo.com/links/Arab_Newspapers/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.arabo.com/links/,200,230,199,200,199,202/,213,205,221/">http://www.arabo.com/links/,200,230,199,200,199,202/,213,205,221/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.aidh.org/Biblio/Txt_Arabe/HP_Arabe.htm">http://www.aidh.org/Biblio/Txt_Arabe/HP_Arabe.htm</a> Basic texts human rights Arab world</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.cihrs.org/Default_en.aspx">http://www.cihrs.org/Default_en.aspx</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.arab-reform.net/spip.php?page=article&amp;id_article=9">http://www.arab-reform.net/spip.php?page=article&amp;id_article=9</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.worldlii.org/catalog/52815.html">http://www.worldlii.org/catalog/52815.html</a> Law sources in Islamic countries</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.wluml.org/english/index.shtml">http://www.wluml.org/english/index.shtml</a> Women living under Muslim law</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://feqh.al-islam.com/"><span lang="FR">http://feqh.al-islam.com/</span></a></span><span> </span>Fiqh resources Saudi Arabia</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.irtipms.org/PubAllE.asp"><span lang="FR">http://www.irtipms.org/PubAllE.asp</span></a></span> Articles on Fiqh &amp; Islam</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/portals.html">http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/portals.html</a> Library of Congress Portal</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.uga.edu/islam/home.html">http://www.uga.edu/islam/home.html</a> Godlas Islamic resources</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://209.85.135.104/search?q=cache:ch0l329mxwIJ:www.zmo.de/links/cybislamlinks.html+european+council+fatwa+research+umm+al+qura+calendar&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=6&amp;gl=fr">http://209.85.135.104/search?q=cache:ch0l329mxwIJ:www.zmo.de/links/cybislamlinks.html+european+council+fatwa+research+umm+al+qura+calendar&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=6&amp;gl=fr</a> Islamic world links of Dr Hofheinz</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.unc.edu/~kurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm">http://www.unc.edu/~kurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/">http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=137">http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=137</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Islam.html">http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Islam.html</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://google.yale.edu/search?q=cache:K8h1VTU3x94J:www.library.yale.edu/neareast/1_research/islamicgeneral.html+islamic+resources&amp;access=p&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;client=library_frontend&amp;site=Yale_Libraries&amp;proxystylesheet=libra">http://google.yale.edu/search?q=cache:K8h1VTU3x94J:www.library.yale.edu/neareast/1_research/islamicgeneral.html+islamic+resources&amp;access=p&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;client=library_frontend&amp;site=Yale_Libraries&amp;proxystylesheet=libra</a> Yale Selected Islamic resources</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/index.shtml">http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/index.shtml</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://xrdarabia.org/">http://xrdarabia.org/</a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.oumma.com/">http://www.oumma.com/</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://tabsir.net/">http://tabsir.net/</a>? </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:2wzXV9mZ_boJ:www.sultan.org/+islamic+sites&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=2&amp;gl=fr">http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:2wzXV9mZ_boJ:www.sultan.org/+islamic+sites&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=2&amp;gl=fr</a> Islamic links from Sultan</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://mondearabe.discuforum.info/index.php">http://mondearabe.discuforum.info/index.php</a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.islamicamagazine.com/" target="_blank">www.islamicamagazine.com</a> Islamica magazine</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p><span style="font-size:12pt;font-family:&quot;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<h3><span>Hebdos français</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.alternatives-economiques.fr/">1 Alternatives Economiques</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lentreprise.com/">1 Entreprise</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lexpansion.com/">1 Expansion</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lexpress.presse.fr/express/">1 Express</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.infoscience.fr/index.php3">1 Info Science, le Quotidien en Ligne</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1">1 Intelligent</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.investir.fr/">1 Investir</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/">1 Monde diplomatique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nouvelobs.com/articles/p2035/index2.html">1 Nouvel Observateur Hebdo</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://permanent.nouvelobs.com/">1 Nouvel Observateur</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nouveleco.com/">1 Nouvel économiste</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.parismatch.com/">1 Paris-Match</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lepoint.fr/sommaire.html">1 Point</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.pourlascience.com/index.php?ids=zmEMzqejbvqjmptGEAAL&amp;Menu=Pls&amp;Action=3&amp;idn3=3614">1 Pour la Science </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.larecherche.fr/">1 Recherche</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://permanent.sciencesetavenir.com/">1 Science &amp; avenir</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.science-et-vie.com/">1 Science &amp; Vie</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.vnunet.fr/svm/home.htm">1 sciences et vie micro</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.usinenouvelle.com/">1 Usine Nouvelle</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lavf.com/">1 Vie Financiere</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.alternatives-economiques.fr/">Alternatives Economiques</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lecanardenchaine.fr/">CANARD ENCHAINE</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.challenges-eco.com/index2.html">Challenges economiques</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lentreprise.com/">Entreprise</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lexpansion.com/">Expansion</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lexpress.presse.fr/express/">Express</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.france-amerique.com/">France-Amerique (Figaro aux USA)</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.geopolitique.com/voircontenu.php?contenuref=174">Geopolitique.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.geostrategie.com/cogit_content/analyses/SeulcontrecentTariqRamadan.shtml">geostrategie.com analyses</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://paris.indymedia.org/index.php3">Indymedia-IMC Paris &#8211; Information alternative + liens</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.investir.fr/">Investir</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ipsos.fr/index.asp">Ipsos-Sondages</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1">L&#8217;intelligent.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://acrimed.samizdat.net/mot.php3?id_mot=663">liens médias France</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.iep.u-bordeaux.fr/liens/">Liens utiles médias français journ TV &#8211; Sciences PO Bordeaux</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lire.fr/">Lire &#8211; le magazine littéraire</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.chez.com/journauxdumonde/mediafr.htm">MEDIAS FRANCOPHONES LIENS</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/">Monde diplomatique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/">My favorite news journaux marocains</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.actualidad.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Newspapers of the world on the Internet</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nouvelobs.com/articles/p2035/index2.html">Nouvel Observateur Hebdo</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://permanent.nouvelobs.com/">Nouvel Observateur</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.parismatch.com/">Paris-Match</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lepoint.fr/sommaire.html">Point</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.polemia.com/contenu.php?cat_id=57&amp;iddoc=706">Polémia</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.pourlascience.com/index.php?ids=zmEMzqejbvqjmptGEAAL&amp;Menu=Pls&amp;Action=3&amp;idn3=3614">Pour la Science </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.larecherche.fr/">Recherche</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.revue-politique.com/7,article,rp200311,06,0000x0000p0003.htm">Revue politique.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.salon.com/src/ads/house/gateway/arr_gateway.html?http://www.salon.com/">Salon magazine</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.saphirnet.info/">SaphirNet.info Presse alternative et actualité</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://permanent.sciencesetavenir.com/">Science &amp; avenir</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.science-et-vie.com/">Science &amp; Vie</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://permanent.sciencesetavenir.com/">Science et avenir</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.vnunet.fr/svm/home.htm">sciences et vie micro</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.toutsurlacom.com/">Toutsurlacom </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.usinenouvelle.com/">Usine Nouvelle</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lavf.com/">Vie Financiere</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.vsd.fr/contenu_editorial/pages/magazine/kiosque/duel/duel145.php">VSD</a></p>
<h3><span>Hebdos Maroc</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.menara.ma/web/index.asp">• Menara Le Portail du Maroc Annuaire Web etc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.leconomiste.com/">1 Économiste</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lagazettedumaroc.com/">1 Gazette du Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1">1 Intelligent</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/">1 Journaux marocains &#8211; My favorite news</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.maroc-hebdo.com/">1 Maroc-hebdo</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lanouvelletribune.com/">1 Nouvelle Tribune</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.telquel-online.com/">1 Tel Quel</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lavieeco.com/index">1 Vie économique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/morocco.htm">1Moroccan Newspapers </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200312190784.html">allAfrica.com </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/imaroc/00000009.html">annuaire des ressources Presse sur Internet ( Maroc)</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.leconomiste.com/">Économiste</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.emarrakech.info/index.php?action=&amp;=">Emarrakech e-Mag de Marrakech et du Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.femmesdumaroc.ma/">FEMMES DU MAROC</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lagazettedumaroc.com/">Gazette du Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lejournal-hebdo.com/">Journal hebdomadaire</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/">Journaux marocains My favorite news</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.liberation.press.ma/">LIBERATION</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.mediagral.fr/maroc/liens/presse.htm">Liens presse internet Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.isranews.com/maroc.htm">liens presse Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1">L&#8217;intelligent.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lobservateur.ma/entreprises.asp">L&#8217;observateur.ma, hebdo électronique info maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.maroc-hebdo.press.ma/"><span lang="EN-GB">MAROC HEBDO INTERNATIONAL</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.maroc-hebdo.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">maroc-hebdo.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.morocco-today.info/"><span lang="EN-GB">Morocco and Africa Today </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/"><span lang="EN-GB">My favorite news journaux marocains</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/morocco.htm">Newspapers from Morocco liens</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lanouvelletribune.com/">Nouvelle Tribune</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.telquel-online.com/">TELQUEL</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lavieeco.com/index">Vie économique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.wanadoo.ma/wanadoo3/fr/infos_loisirs/news/index.cfm">Wanadoo Maroc</a></p>
<h3><span>Hebdos Moyen Orient</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://hebdo.ahram.org.eg/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Al-Ahram Hebdo francais</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Al-Ahram Weekly </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.middleeastnews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Middle East News &amp; World Report </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://metimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Middle East Times </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tunisieinfo.com/indexrenouveau.html"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Tunisie Info </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://hebdo.ahram.org.eg/"><span lang="EN-GB">Al-Ahram Hebdo francais</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/"><span lang="EN-GB">Al-Ahram Weekly </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.amin.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Arabic Media Internet Network &#8211; </span><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">أمين</span></a><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.amin.org/look/amin/press.htm">http://www.amin.org/look/amin/press.htm</a> Arab media internet network</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Arabic News </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Weekly/Egypt/20031103.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Arabic News Weekly Edition by country</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.arabic2000.com/index/news.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Arabic2000.Com &#8211; Arabic Newspapers and Magazines</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cairotimes.com/">Cairo Times</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ifrance.com/Confluences/presentation/menu.htm">Confluences (revue)</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.iranchamber.com/podium/culture/021117_veiling_segregation_sexes.php">Culture on Podium Iran</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cursor.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Cursor.org &#8211; Table of Contents page</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.egypttoday.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Egypt Today</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1"><span lang="EN-GB">Intelligent</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.iranchamber.com/index.php"><span lang="EN-GB">IranChamber.com Society</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.middleeastnews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Middle East News &amp; World Report </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://metimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Middle East Times </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.q-news.com/passion-sharif.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">QNews &#8211; the muslim magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tunisieinfo.com/realites/876/sommaire.html"><span lang="EN-GB">revue Réalités</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.shell-me.com/english/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Shell in the Middle East Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tunisieinfo.com/indexrenouveau.html">Tunisie Info </a></p>
<h3><span>Hebdos US, UK, etc</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2003/11/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Atlantic monthly</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Atlantic Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.barrons.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Barron&#8217;s Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.businessweek.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 BusinessWeek</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.economist.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Economist.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.esquire.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Esquire</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/us/sc/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 FindLaw Legal News Supreme Court</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.forbes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Forbes &#8211; Financial &amp; Business </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.fortune.com/fortune/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Fortune</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cob.ohio-state.edu/fin/journal/jofsites.htm#iwp"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Journal of Finance Other Finance Related Sites</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.life.com/Life/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Life Magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thenation.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Nation</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nationalgeographic.fr/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 National Geographic France</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tnr.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 New Republic Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/pages/magazine/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 New York Times Magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.newyorker.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 New Yorker</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.msnbc.com/news/NW-front_Front.asp?ta=y"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Newsweek </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://observer.guardian.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Observer.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.penthouse.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Penthouse magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://people.aol.com/people/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">1 People magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.playboy.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Playboy</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.satevepost.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Saturday Evening Post</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.scienceonline.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Science Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.sciam.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Scientific American.com </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/section/0,,2086,00.html"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Sunday Times.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.time.com/time/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 TIME magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Washington Monthly Magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.worldnews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 World News Network </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.aaas.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">AAAS &#8211; The World&#8217;s Largest General Scientific Society</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ajr.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">American Journalism Review</span></a><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.americanscientist.org/template/Index"><span lang="EN-GB">American Scientist Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2003/11/"><span lang="EN-GB">Atlantic monthly</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Atlantic Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://bostonreview.net/"><span lang="EN-GB">Boston Review A Political and Literary Forum</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://bostonreview.net/masthead.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Boston Review Masthead</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.bugmenot.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">BugMeNot.com bypass compulsory web registration</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.businessweek.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">BusinessWeek Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cnn.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">CNN.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/columnists/"><span lang="EN-GB">Columnists Syndicated Columnists</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.crosscurrents.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">CrossCurrents magazine writing on religion</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.csicop.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">CSICOP On-line Scientifically Investigating Paranormal</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.discovery.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Discovery Institute</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.dissentmagazine.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Dissent Magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.economist.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Economist.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.edweek.org/rc/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Education Week Research Center</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.esquire.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Esquire</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/us/sc/"><span lang="EN-GB">FindLaw Legal News Supreme Court</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.forbes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Forbes &#8211; Financial &amp; Business </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.fortune.com/fortune/"><span lang="EN-GB">Fortune</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.fountainmagazine.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Fountain Magazine on religion</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.harpers.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Harpers.org</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Independent.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.indexonline.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Index on Censorship Latest News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.milligazette.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">India Muslim News online The Milli Gazette</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.milligazette.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">India Muslim News The Milli Gazette</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.einnews.com/china/"><span lang="EN-GB">Inside China Today</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cob.ohio-state.edu/fin/journal/jofsites.htm#iwp"><span lang="EN-GB">Journal of Finance Other Finance Related Sites</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/type/magazines/">liens US Magazines, News Magazines, Online</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/type/newspapers/">liens US Newspapers Online</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.life.com/Life/">Life Magazine</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/">My favorite news journaux marocains</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thenation.com/">Nation</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nationalgeographic.fr/">National Geographic France</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nationalreview.com/">National Review Online</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/">Natural History Magazine</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tnr.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">New Republic Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nybooks.com/index"><span lang="EN-GB">New York Review of Books</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/pages/magazine/"><span lang="EN-GB">New York Times Magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.newyorker.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">New Yorker</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.library.mun.ca/internet/news.php"><span lang="EN-GB">News Sites</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.msnbc.com/news/NW-front_Front.asp?ta=y"><span lang="EN-GB">Newsweek </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://observer.guardian.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Observer.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.penthouse.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Penthouse magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://people.aol.com/people/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">People magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.playboy.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Playboy.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.politics1.com/news.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Politics1 &#8211; National Political News Links</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.proteinscience.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Protein Science</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.satevepost.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Saturday Evening Post</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.sciam.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Scientific American.com </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.the-scientist.com/home"><span lang="EN-GB">Scientist The, News Journal for the Life Scientist</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://speakout.com/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Speakout.com Politics, Activism, Political Issues</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/section/0,,2086,00.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Sunday Times.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2003/02/27/stories/2003022703541200.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">The Hindu india&#8217;s national newspaper</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.the-scientist.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">The Scientist News Journal for the Life Scientist</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.time.com/time/"><span lang="EN-GB">TIME magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thesis.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Times Higher Education Supplement</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/section/0,,2086,00.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Times Online &#8211; Sunday Times</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.townhall.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Townhall.com Conservative News and Information</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Washington Monthly Magazine</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.wrmea.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Washington report on middle east</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.weeklystandard.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Weekly Standard</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://womensissues.about.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Women&#8217;s Issues</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.worldnews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">World News Network </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p><span style="font-size:12pt;font-family:&quot;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<h3><span>Quotidiens français</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.afp.com/francais/home/">1 AFP &#8211; liens nationaux et internationaux</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lesechos.fr/">1 Echos</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/">1 Figaro</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://francesoir.quotidiano.net/news.php">1 France Soir</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1">1 Intelligent</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/">1 Libération</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lalibrebelgique.com/">1 Libre Belgique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lemonde.fr/">1 Monde</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.leparisien.fr/home/index.htm">1 Parisien</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lesoir.be/">1 Soir (Belgique)</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.latribune.fr/">1 Tribune</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tdg.ch/accueil/index.php?Page_ID=5304">1 Tribune de Genève </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.abc.es/">abc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.afp.com/francais/home/">AFP &#8211; liens nationaux et internationaux</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.courrierinternational.com/actual/accueil.asp">Courrier international.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lesechos.fr/">Echos</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.elpais.es/">El Pais</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.elmundo.es/">elmundo.es </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.elpais.es/">ELPAIS.es -</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.epoca.es/">ÉPOCA espagne</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.expansiondirecto.com/">Expansion Espagne</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/">Figaro</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.humanite.fr/">Humanité</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.univ-perp.fr/scms/bu/selections-de-sites/la_presse.htm">La presse en ligne liens internet</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lavanguardia.es/">LA VANGUARDIA (Barcelona)</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lematin-dz.net/quotidien/lire.php?ida=17433&amp;idc=89">Le Matin</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/">Libération</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lalibrebelgique.com/">Libre Belgique</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.libraryspot.com/newspapers.htm">liens Newspapers du monde &#8211; LibrarySpot.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1"><span lang="EN-GB">L&#8217;intelligent.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lemonde.fr/"><span lang="EN-GB">Monde</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/france.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Newspapers from France</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.actualidad.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Newspapers of the world on the Internet</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.notretemps.com/">Notre Temps</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.notretemps.bayardweb.com/index.jsp">Notre temps.com internet</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://perso.club-internet.fr/gregoire.seither/revue/revue.html">Revue de presse sur le web Libertes et Internet</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.saphirnet.info/">SaphirNet.info Presse alternative et actualité</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lesoir.be/">Soir (Belgique)</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.temoignagechretien.fr/">Témoignage chrétien</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.letemps.ch/">Temps</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/">Thousands of newspapers on the Net</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ttc.org/">Tocqueville Connection</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.latribune.fr/">Tribune</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tdg.ch/accueil/index.php?Page_ID=5304">Tribune de Genève </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://doc-iep.univ-lyon2.fr/Ressources/Actu/actualite.html">WebDoc IEP L&#8217;actualité internationale sur internet</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://fr.news.yahoo.com/031027/202/3guj2.html">Yahoo! Actualités &#8211; </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://fr.news.yahoo.com/">Yahoo! Actualités Info continue</a></p>
<h3><span lang="EN-GB">Quotidiens Maroc</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/ftrials.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Famous Trials &#8211; UMKC School of Law</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/">1 Journaux marocains My favorite news</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.bibliomonde.net/pages/fiche-geo-donnee.php3?id_page_donnee=48">1 Maroc , Les médias &#8211; BiblioMonde annuaire journaux</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lematin.ma/">1 Matin</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lopinion.ma/">1 Opinion</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.leconomiste.com/">1 Économiste</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/morocco.htm">1Moroccan Newspapers </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ahdath.info/">1<span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">الأحداث المغربية1</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.asharqalawsat.com/">1<span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">جريدة الشرق الاوسط</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.abdelhadiboutaleb.com/articles_ar.asp">Abdelhadi Boutaleb.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://membres.lycos.fr/adrare/XYIZNWSK/pressenationale.htm">Adrare presse marocaine <span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">أدرار &#8211; دليل الصحافة المغربية</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.al-jarida.net/Newsummary.html">Al-Jarida.netNews Links-Maroc etranger</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200312190784.html">allAfrica.com Maroc Début d&#8217;examen du projet de Moudawana au Parlement les ministres Bouzoubâa et Tawfik balisent le champ</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/presse/?print=1">Ambas France Revue presse marocaine</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.assabah.press.ma/">Assabah </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.attajdid.ma/">Attajdid</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.isranews.com/maroc.htm">Isranews &#8211; liens presse Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.kisra.net/news/">Journaux marocains My favorite news</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/gabarits/accueil_online.asp?pageid=1">L&#8217;intelligent.com</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lobservateur.ma/entreprises.asp">L&#8217;observateur.ma, hebdo électronique info maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.liberation.press.ma/"><span lang="EN-GB">LIBERATION</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/morocco.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Liens Newspapers from Morocco</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.marocnews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">M a r o c N e w s</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lematin.ma/">MATIN</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.lopinion.ma/">OPINION</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.wanadoo.ma/wanadoo3/fr/infos_loisirs/news/index.cfm">Wanadoo Maroc</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.leconomiste.com/">Économiste</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ahdath.info/"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">الأحداث المغربية</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.alalam.ma/"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">الجريدة اليومية العلم &#8211; لسان حزب اللإستقلال</span> Al Alam </a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.alalam.ma/"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">الـعـلـم</span> -</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.asharqalawsat.com/"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">جريدة الشرق الاوسط</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.asharqalawsat.com/AFP/international/index.html"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">خدمة وكالة فرانس برس</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.menara.ma/infos/index.htm">• Menara Le Portail du Maroc</a></p>
<h3><span> </span></h3>
<h3><span>Quotidiens Moyen Orient</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ahram.org.eg/"><span lang="EN-GB">al ahram daily egypt</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.eltahrir.net/"><span lang="EN-GB">al gumhuriyeh &#8211; egypt </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/E4D19123-9DD3-11D1-B44E-006097071264.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Aljazeera TV.Net English </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.amin.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Arabic Media Internet Network &#8211; </span><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">أمين</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cursor.org/aljazeera.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Cursor&#8217;s Al-Jazeera Link</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cursor.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">Cursor.org &#8211; Table of Contents page</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.gulf-news.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Gulf News Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.guysen.com/mena.php?sid=702"><span lang="EN-GB">Guysen Israel News Mena </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.haaretz.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Haaretz- Israel (engl)</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.ipl.org/div/news/browse/EG/"><span lang="EN-GB">IPLibrary Journaux Egypt</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://islam-online.net/english/index.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Islam Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/P/FrontPage/FrontPage&amp;cid=1002116796299"><span lang="EN-GB">Jerusalem Post</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.alhewar.com/NewspaperLinks2.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Links at Alhewar.com, Radio, TV, Newspapers</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.muslimunited.org/index.php"><span lang="EN-GB">MuslimUnited.org Latest News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/egypt.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Newspapers from Egypt</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://proche-orient.info/xjournal_pol_analyse.php3?id_article=23252"><span lang="EN-GB">Proche Orient Info</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.shianews.com/index.php"><span lang="EN-GB">Shia News Persia</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.tunisieinfo.com/">Tunisie Info &#8211; Sources d&#8217;information sur la Tunisie</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.akhbarelyom.org/"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">الصفحة الأولي &#8211; أخبار اليوم</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.asharqalawsat.com/"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">جريدة الشرق الاوسط</span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.alwafd.org/front/index.php"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">ريدة الوفد</span> egypte</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://us.moheet.com/asp/subject.asp?ch=12"><span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA">شبكة المعلومات العربية محيــط</span></a></p>
<h3><span>Quotidiens US, UK, etc</span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.boston.com/">1 Boston Globe</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Chicago Tribune </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.csmonitor.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Christian Science Monitor </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cnn.com/WEATHER/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">1 CNN.com &#8211; Weather, news, etc.</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thedailyherald.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Daily Herald uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Daily Mirror.co.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.freep.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Detroit Free Press </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://news.ft.com/home/europe"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Financial Times.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.iht.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 International Herald Tribune</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/columnists/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 liens Columnists US</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/critics/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 liens Critics US Books, TV, Movies &amp; more </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 London Evening Standard</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.latimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Los Angeles Times</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nydailynews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 New York Daily News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.observer.com/index_go.html"><span lang="EN-GB">1 NEW YORK OBSERVER</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nypress.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 New York Press</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 New York Times </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.newsday.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Newsday</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.reuters.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Reuters Latest News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.sfgate.com/chronicle/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 San Francisco Chronicle</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 This is London (Evening Standard)</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Times.uk </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/digest.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">1 USATODAY</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.usnews.com/usnews/home.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">1 usnews</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.villagevoice.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Village Voice</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/us"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Wall Street Journal</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Washington Post</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.washtimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 Washington Times </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://7am.com/wireidx/world/"><span lang="EN-GB">1 World Headlines</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.worldpress.org/Europe/1664.cfm"><span lang="EN-GB">1 World Press Review online &#8211; Germany</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.altamusica.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">ALTAMUSICA.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.boston.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Boston Globe</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.c-span.org/"><span lang="EN-GB">C-SPAN</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/"><span lang="EN-GB">cbc.ca &#8211; news</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Chicago Tribune </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.csmonitor.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Christian Science Monitor </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Cleveland Jewish News.com &#8212; Home</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cnn.com/WEATHER/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">CNN.com &#8211; Weather, news, etc.</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/"><span lang="EN-GB">CNN.com &#8211; World News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.cnn.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">CNN.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thedailyherald.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Daily Herald uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Daily Mirror.co.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.freep.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Detroit Free Press </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://news.ft.com/home/europe"><span lang="EN-GB">Financial Times.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/"><span lang="EN-GB">Guardian Unlimited Life</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Guardian Unlimited.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.iht.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">International Herald Tribune</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/columnists/"><span lang="EN-GB">liens Columnists US</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/critics/"><span lang="EN-GB">liens Critics US Books, TV, Movies &amp; more </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.forward.com/index.html"><span lang="EN-GB">liens Médias US FORWARD</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/oped/"><span lang="EN-GB">liens US Opinion-Editorials Newspaper, Commentary</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">London Evening Standard</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.latimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Los Angeles Times</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.poynter.org/column.asp?id=45"><span lang="EN-GB">media news US </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.muslimnews.co.uk/paper/"><span lang="EN-GB">Muslim News &#8211; uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nydailynews.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">New York Daily News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.observer.com/index_go.html"><span lang="EN-GB">NEW YORK OBSERVER</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nypress.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">New York Press</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">New York Times </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,4057,7517110%255E1702,00.html"><span lang="EN-GB">NEWS.com.Australie</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.newsday.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Newsday</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.headlinespot.com/opinion/oped/"><span lang="EN-GB">Opinion-Editorials Newspaper Editorials</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.parapundit.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">ParaPundit.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.politics1.com/news.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Politics1 &#8211; Political News Links</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.reuters.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Reuters Latest News</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.rosbaltnews.com/2003/07/11/62947.html"><span lang="EN-GB">RosbaltNews.COM Russia</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.sfgate.com/chronicle/"><span lang="EN-GB">San Francisco Chronicle</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">ScienceDaily Magazine Your Source for the Latest</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.spectator.co.uk/v3_entry_frames.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">spectator.co.uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://straitstimes.asia1.com.sg/"><span lang="EN-GB">Straits Times (Singapore)</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://newstrove.com/cgi-bin/search.pl?search=terrorism+osama+laden+hizbullah+hezbollah+terrorist+terrorists+jihad&amp;title=Terrorism&amp;category=war_on_terror&amp;alias=terrorism"><span lang="EN-GB">Terrorism Osama Laden Hizbullah Hezbollah Terrorist Terrorists Jihad</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.theonion.com/content/node/41260"><span lang="EN-GB">The Onion &#8211; comic news America&#8217;s Finest News Source</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">This is London (Evening Standard)</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Thousands of newspapers on the Net</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3569-1076841,00.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Times Online &#8211; uk</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/"><span lang="EN-GB">Times.uk </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.berkeley.edu/"><span lang="EN-GB">UC Berkeley home page</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://usinfo.state.gov/"><span lang="EN-GB">US Dept of State &#8211; USINFO</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/digest.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">USATODAY</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.usnews.com/usnews/home.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">usnews.com</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.variety.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Variety.com &#8211; Variety Magazine Online</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.villagevoice.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Village Voice</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/us"><span lang="EN-GB">Wall Street Journal</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Washington Post</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.washtimes.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Washington Times </span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://7am.com/wireidx/world/"><span lang="EN-GB">World Headlines</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.worldpress.org/Europe/1664.cfm"><span lang="EN-GB">World Press Review online &#8211; Germany</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.worldnetdaily.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">WorldNetDaily &#8211; A Free Press for a Free People</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://news.yahoo.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Yahoo! News &#8211; Front Page</span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p><span style="font-size:12pt;font-family:&quot;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<h2><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Arab media</span></h2>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Brian Whittaker’s Al-Bab Portal to Arab World" href="http://www.al-bab.com/default.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Al-Bab Portal to Arab World</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Al-Bawaba portal to Arab countries" href="http://www.albawaba.com/en/main/"><span lang="EN-GB">Al-Bawaba portal to Arab countries</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Al-Hewar links to Arab media" href="http://www.alhewar.com/NewspaperLinks2.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Al-Hewar links to Arab media</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Arab countries newspapers portal by country" href="http://www.arabo.com/links/Arab_Newspapers/">Arab countries      newspapers portal</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Human rights in Arab countries" href="http://www.arabdemocracyfoundation.org/links/">Arab democracy foundation</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Arab newspapers links" href="http://www.arabo.com/links/,200,230,199,200,199,202/,213,205,221/">Arab newspapers links</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Reform issues in Muslim society" href="http://www.arab-reform.net/spip.php?page=article&amp;id_article=9">Arab Reform Initiative</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Arabnews daily" href="http://www.arabnews.com/">Arabnews daily</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Arab daily in English" href="http://asharqalawsat.com/english/default.asp">asharqalawsat daily English</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Jeanne Hersch Basic texts on Human rights in Arab world" href="http://www.aidh.org/Biblio/Txt_Arabe/HP_Arabe.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Basic texts on Human rights in      Arab world</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Human rights issues in Egypt" href="http://www.cihrs.org/Default_en.aspx">Cairo Institute Human Rights Studies</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Media links Islamic resources" href="http://www.commongroundnews.org/links.php?lan=en">Common Grounds media links</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles &amp; opinions on Islamic reform" href="http://tabari.com/blog1/">Critical thinking for      Islamic reform</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Saudi Arabia issues" href="http://xrdarabia.org/">Crossroads Arabia</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Fiqh resources online Kuwait" href="http://feqh.al-islam.com/">Fiqh      resources online SaudiArabia</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles ressources Islam monde arabe" href="http://mondearabe.discuforum.info/index.php">Forum du monde arabe France</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="IRTI - Articles on Fiqh &amp; Islam" href="http://www.irtipms.org/PubAllE.asp">IRTI &#8211; Fiqh &amp; Islam      articles</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic sites database" href="http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:2wzXV9mZ_boJ:www.sultan.org/+islamic+sites&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=2&amp;gl=fr">Islamic links from Sultan</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles on Islam by modern thinkers" href="http://www.geocities.com/islamic_modernist/">Islamic modernist page</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic issues discussed rationally" href="http://www.islamicperspectives.com/default.htm">Islamic Perspectives</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Digital resources on Islam from Arab countries" href="http://www.fondation.org.ma/Maghareb/Bibliotth_virtuelles/Arabe_afrique_asie.htm">Islamic resources      Fondation.ma</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Links to Islamic sites" href="http://www.sultan.org/2/">Islamic      sites links from Sultan</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic websites in Arabic from Sultan" href="http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:niJVn3e9SQ4J:www.islamiyyat.com/islamic-sites-index.htm+islamic+sites&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=4&amp;gl=fr"><span lang="EN-GB">Islamic websites in Arabic from Sultan</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic world list of links maintained by Dr Hofheinz" href="http://209.85.135.104/search?q=cache:ch0l329mxwIJ:www.zmo.de/links/cybislamlinks.html+european+council+fatwa+research+umm+al+qura+calendar&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=6&amp;gl=fr"><span lang="EN-GB">Islamic world links of Dr      Hofheinz</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Yusuf al-Qaradawi’s website - Islamic issues" href="http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/index.shtml">Islamonline.net</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="UAE daily newspaper" href="http://www.khaleejtimes.com/index00.asp">Khaleej      Times online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Mafhoum - data base of Arab media" href="http://www.mafhoum.com/phpmedia/mediaFrameSet.php?selPrefix=NM_&amp;selLangueT=2&amp;selDbChoose=false"><span lang="EN-GB">Mafhoum &#8211; data base of Arab media</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Major theologians’ sites from Sultan" href="http://www.islamiyyat.com/islamic-sites-index2.htm">Major theologians’ sites from      Sultan</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Arabic site of news and opinions" href="http://middleeasttransparent.com/sommaire.php3?lang=ar">Middle East transparent (arabic)</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles about Islam and Tunisia" href="http://www.nawaat.org/portail/">Nawaat.org articles</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Newspapers Arab countries online" href="http://www.al-bab.com/media/newspapers.htm#SAUDI">Newspapers Arab countries online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Newspapers Arab countries online al-Bab portal" href="http://www.al-bab.com/media/newspapers.htm#SAUDI">Newspapers Arab      countries online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic site from France" href="http://www.oumma.com/">Oumma.com</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic issues discussed" href="http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:OxXAWhe9PsMJ:www.answering-islam.org/L_islamic.html+islamic+sites&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=7&amp;gl=fr">Resources on Islam Answering Islam</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Saudi daily newspaper" href="http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?">Saudi Gazette</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Tabsir.net Arab media links" href="http://www.tabsir.net/links.html">Tabsir.net      Arab media links</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islamic issues discussed on Kuwaiti site" href="http://www.kwtanweer.com/">Tanweer &#8211; Kuwait</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="The Qur’an database from Sultan.org" href="http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:JmXPBO1oPJ4J:www.sultan.org/a/+islamic+sites&amp;hl=fr&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=1&amp;gl=fr"><span lang="EN-GB">The Qur’an database from Sultan.org</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islam for today site" href="http://www.islamfortoday.com/women.htm">Women      in Islam</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Blogroll</span></h2>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="50 top newspapers accessed online" href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/Top50/Top50-Current.htm">50 top newspapers accessed      online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Muslim Hindu dialogue" href="http://www.svabhinava.org/MeccaBenares/">Between Mecca and Benares</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Bibliotheca Alexandrina Egypt" href="http://www.bibalex.gov.eg/English/links.htm">Bibliotheca Alexandrina Egypt</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Business magazines online worldwide" href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/magazines/magazines-business-finance.htm">Business magazines online      worldwide</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Chiosco List of links to international media" href="http://cc.msnscache.com/cache.aspx?q=73677102615933&amp;mkt=fr-FR&amp;setlang=fr-FR&amp;w=3edf7672,ecf746a3&amp;FORM=CVRE9"><span lang="EN-GB">Chiosco List of links to international media</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Human Rights database U. Minnesota" href="http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/index.html">Human Rights documentation U.      Minnesota</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Reports on human rights violations" href="http://hrw.org/">Human      Rights Watch</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Comparative Islamic family law in Muslim countries" href="http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/"><span lang="EN-GB">Islamic family law Emory U.</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://aster77.wordpress.com/2008/04/26/la-charia-et-les-droits-de-la-femme-au-21e-siecle/">La      charia et les droits de la femme au 21è siècle</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Guide to law in Muslim countries" href="http://www.worldlii.org/catalog/52815.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Law sources in each Islamic country</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Magazines politics &amp; culture worldwide" href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/magazines/magazines-current-affairs-culture-politics.htm">Magazines politics      &amp; culture worldwide</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles on Middle East issues" href="http://www.memri.org/index.html">Middle East Media Research      Institute</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Newspapers worldwide by country" href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/">Newspapers worldwide</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="India’s Muslims views on Islam" href="http://dawoodi-bohras.com/">Progressive      Dawoodi-Bohras</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="400 newspaper columnists worldwide" href="http://www.project-syndicate.org/">Project Syndicate</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Women’s actions to achieve progress" href="http://www.sistersinislam.org.my/">Sisters in Islam Malaysia</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="UNDP Arab States reports" href="http://www.undp.org/arabstates/">UNDP      Arab States reports</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="United Nations Development Programme" href="http://gender.pogar.org/resources/index.asp?typ=3"><span lang="EN-GB">UNDP Women &amp; gender in Arab countries</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="UNDP Women empowerment resources" href="http://www.undp.org/women/resources.shtml">UNDP Women empowerment resources</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles on condition of women in Muslim societies" href="http://www.wluml.org/english/index.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Women Living Under Muslim Law      website</span></a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Women groups’ activites to achieve progress" href="http://www.learningpartnership.org/en/about">Women’s Learning      Partnership</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>French media</span></h2>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles on Issues in Muslim world" href="http://www.arabicareport.com/index.php">Arabica report</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Newspapers magazines France online" href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/france.htm">French Newspapers magazines      online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Astronomie &amp; phases de la lune" href="http://www.imcce.fr/page.php?nav=fr/ephemerides/astronomie/phases_lune/index.php">Institut Mécanique Céleste      Paris</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Journal d’infos en ligne" href="http://www.mediapart.fr/une">Médiapart      &#8211; France</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Morocco media</span></h2>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Daily review of Moroccan press" href="http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/presse/">Ambassade France Revue Presse Maroc</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Journaux marocains en ligne" href="http://www.jeunemaroc.com/journaux_marocains.php">Journaux marocains en ligne</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Newspapers magazines Morocco online" href="http://www.ambafrance-ma.org/imaroc/listeurl.cfm?code=1">Moroccan media online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Moroccan newspapers magazines online" href="http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/morocco.htm">Moroccan newspapers magazines      online</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>UK media</span></h2>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily      Mail &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/">Daily Mirror &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.ft.com/home/uk">Financial Times &#8211;      UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily Guardian.co.uk" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/">Guardian.co.uk</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Skynews - UK" href="http://news.sky.com/skynews/">Skynews &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British weekly" href="http://www.economist.com/">The Economist &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.independent.co.uk/">The Independent      &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://observer.guardian.co.uk/">The Observer      &#8211; UK</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="British daily" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/">The      Times of London</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="This is London from Evening Standard" href="http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/home/"><span lang="EN-GB">This is London from Evening Standard</span></a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>US media</span></h2>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Legal resources worldwide" href="http://www.chanrobles.com/toc.htm">Chan      Robles virtual law library</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Middle East &amp; Islamic studies resources" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Islam.html">Columbia U. Islamic      resources online</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Links to US, UK &amp; international media" href="http://www.drudgereport.com/">Drudge report</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Understanding evolution in living world" href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/home.php">Evolution resources at      Berkeley</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="US resources on biological evolution" href="http://www.kcfs.org/">Evolution      resources at KCFS</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Women’s rights in Middle East countries" href="http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=137">Freedom House reports</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Islam &amp; Islamic resources" href="http://www.uga.edu/islam/home.html">Godlas      Islam &amp; Islamic resources</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Articles on Islamic issues" href="http://www.ijtihad.org/">Ijtihad      Dr Muqtedar Khan</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><a title="Modern Islamic thinkers" href="http://www.unc.edu/%7Ekurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm">Kurzman’s liberal Islam links</a></li>
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		<title>Issues in the Islamic calendar</title>
		<link>http://umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com/2008/08/16/test-issues-in-the-islamic-calendar/</link>
		<comments>http://umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com/2008/08/16/test-issues-in-the-islamic-calendar/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 16 Aug 2008 16:23:10 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>aster</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Islamic calendar]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[calendar]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[crescent]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Fiqh]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Islamic]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[new moon]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Shariah]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Umm al Qura]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com/?p=4</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Khalid Chraibi 16 August 2008 Tabsir.net See this article on Tabsir.net “The sun and the moon follow courses (exactly) computed;” (Koran, Ar-Rahman, 55 : 5) “It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for it; that ye might [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com&amp;blog=4411590&amp;post=4&amp;subd=umaralkhayyam&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal"><strong></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Khalid Chraibi</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">16 August 2008</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong>Tabsir.net</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><a href="http://tabsir.net/?p=633#more-633">See this article on Tabsir.net</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">“<em>The sun and the moon follow courses (exactly) computed;” (Koran, Ar-Rahman, 55 : 5)</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">“<em>It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for it; that ye might know the number of years and the count (of time).” (Koran, Yunus, 10 : 5)</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">“<em>The ulamas do not have the monopoly of interpretation of the shariah. Of course, their advice must be sought in the first place on shariah matters. (But) they do no make religious law, in the same way that it is not the law professors who make the law, but parliaments.” (Ahmed Khamlichi, Point de vue n° 4)</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 1: Why do Muslims observe the new moon to determine the beginning of months?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">When the Messenger was asked by his Companions for a method to determine the beginning of the month of fasting, he told them to begin fasting with the observation of the new moon (on the evening of the 29th day of sha&#8217;aban) and to end fasting with the new moon (of the month of shawal). &#8220;If the crescent is not visible (because of the clouds), count to 30 days&#8221;. (1)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">At that time, the Bedouins didn’t know how to write or how to count. They knew nothing about astronomy. But, they were used to observe the stars, at night, in order to find their way in the desert, and to observe the birth of the new moon to determine the beginning of months. The Messenger’s recommendation fitted perfectly with the specifics of their situation.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 2: Why is the new moon visible, after its birth, in some regions of the world only?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The new lunar month begins, for astronomers, with the monthly “conjunction”, when the Moon is located on a straight line between the Earth and the Sun. At that moment, the Moon is invisible. The lunar crescent begins to be visible only some 18 hours after the “conjunction”, and only subject to the existence of a number of favourable conditions relative to weather, time, geographic location, as well as various astronomical parameters (number of hours after conjunction; relative positions of the Sun, the lunar crescent and the observer; altitude of the moon at sunset; site of observation; limits of vision of the human eye…). (2) </span></p>
<p><span lang="EN-GB">Each month, the new Moon will be visible, at first, at some specific sites on Earth, before it can be seen elsewhere.</span><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 3: Can we identify in advance the most favourable sites for the observation of each new moon? </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Renowned Muslim astronomers, such as Ibn Tariq (8th c.), Al-Khawarizmi (780 ?- 863), Al-Battani (850-929), Al-Bayrouni (973-1048), Tabari (11th c.), Ibn Yunus (11th c.), Nassir al-Din Al-Tousi (1258-1274 ?), etc. devoted much attention to the study of the criteria of visibility of the new moon, with the objective of developing efficient techniques of forecasting of the beginning of a new month.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">But, it’s only in recent times that some astronomers and information systems experts succeeded in developing procedures which make it possible to identify in advance, each month, the areas on Earth in which favourable conditions will exist for the observation of the new moon. Thus, in 1984, a physicist from Malaysia, Mohamed Ilyas, succeeded in drawing on the Earth map a “line of lunar date”, at whose west the crescent will be visible on the evening of the new month, whereas it won’t be seen, East of this line, until the next evening. (2) Today, detailed maps of the areas of visibility of the new moon are monthly drawn, well in advance, and published in such sites as « Moonsighting.com ». (3)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 4: Shouldn’t the observation of the new moon, wherever it is carried out, mark the beginning of a new month for all Muslims?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In theory, when the new moon is observed, this indicates the beginning of a new month for all Muslims in the areas in which the information is received. At the time of Revelation, when communications from one region to another were difficult, this rule applied essentially to the geographic areas which were proximate to the site of observation. But, today, with modern communication means, and instant transmission of news throughout the world, the area in which the rule could apply is much wider. (4) (5)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">However, in order to demonstrate their sovereignty, most Islamic States generally proceed with their own monthly observation of the new moon (or, failing that, await the completion of 30 days) before declaring the beginning of a new month on their territory. Each State has defined its own applicable parameters and procedures in this matter, thereby adding to the complexity of the situation. (6)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 5: Since the lunar month can only have 29 days or 30 days, why is there a difference of two days (and sometimes even three days) in the celebration of the beginning of Ramadan or of eid al-Fitr in different countries?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Logically speaking, either a State will observe the new moon on the evening of the 29<sup>th</sup> day, or it will complete a count of 30 days. So, the beginning of a new month should differ by only 24 hours between the countries of the world. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">But this is not verified, in practice. Thus, the 1<sup>st</sup> Ramadan 1428 corresponded to Wednesday 12 September 2007  in 2 countries; to Thursday 13 September in 40 countries; and to Friday 14 September in 9 countries. (7)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Similarly, the 1st Shawwal 1428, date of celebration of Eid al-Fitr, corresponded to Thursday 11 October 2007 in 1 country; to Friday 12 October in 33 countries; to Saturday 13 October in 23 countries; and to Sunday 14 October in 3 countries. (8)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Since different Muslim States determine different days for the beginning of the same month, they also reach the 30th day of the month on different days. Political and geostrategic considerations, as well as human errors in the observation of the new moon, also explain some discrepancies.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The Muslim astronomers who proceeded, in recent years, with in-depth studies of these issues reached the conclusion that the beginning of months that were announced by Islamic States over a period of several decades was often erroneous, for a number of reasons. (2) (9)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 6: Is the lunar calendar based on calculations a satisfactory alternative to the observation of the new moon? </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The lunar calendar based on astronomical calculations has been in existence for some four millennia. It was already used by the Babylonians in the 18<sup>th</sup> c. B.C. Each lunar month begins, as was stated, at the time of the monthly &#8220;conjunction&#8221;, when the Moon is located on a straight line between the Earth and the Sun. The month is defined as the average duration of a rotation of the Moon around the Earth (29.53 days). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The lunation (period of time between two successive new moons) varies within a zone whose limits are 29.27 days at the Summer solstice and 29.84 days at the Winter solstice, giving for the 12 months’ year an average length of 354.37 days. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">From an astronomical point of view, lunar months do not alternate between a length of 30 days and 29 days in succession. There are, at times, short series of 29 d, and at other times short series of 30 d, as illustrated by the length (in days) of the following 24 lunar months, corresponding to the period 2007-2008 :</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">« 30, 29, 30, 29, 29, 30, 29, 29, 30, 30, 29, 30, 30, 30, 29, 30, 29, 29, 30, 29, 29, 30, 29, 30 »</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The astronomers formulated the convention, over two thousands years ago, that months of 30 days and 29 days would succeed each other, in order for two successive months to add up to 59 full days. This left only a small monthly variation of 44 minutes to account for, which added up to a total of 24 hours (i.e. the equivalent of one full day) in 2.73 years. To settle accounts, it was sufficient to add one day every three years to the lunar calendar, in the same way that one adds one day to the Gregorian calendar, every four years. The “tabular calendar” thus obtained includes 11 “abundant” years, with a duration of 355 d each, within a cycle of 30 years (years # 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26 and 29), whereas there are 19 « common » years, with a duration of 354 d each. (10)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 7: Why don’t Muslims use the lunar calendar based on calculations?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The Koran does not prohibit the use of astronomical calculations for the establishment of the calendar. At the methodological level, it merely specifies that the lunar year has only 12 months. (11)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">But, based on the Messenger’s recommendation to the Bedouins to start and to end the fast of the month of Ramadan with the observation of the new moon, the Ulamas (Muslim jurists) developed a consensus to reject the use of calculations, based on the postulate that one shouldn’t go against the teachings of the Messenger (12). This consensus has lasted for 14 centuries. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The only exceptions were a handful of theologians, in the early years of Islam, who saw no contradiction between the Messenger&#8217;s teachings and the use of astronomical calculations to determine the beginnings of lunar months. (13) At the institutional level, the (shi’ite) dynasty of Fatimids in Egypt was the only State to use a pre-calculated calendar, over a period of two centuries, between the 10th and 12th centuries, before a change of political regime reactivated the procedure of observation of the new moon. (14)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 8: Does the hadith of the Messenger concerning the observation of the new moon establish an immutable rule of law?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Since the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, many Islamic thinkers have questioned the arguments presented against the use of calculations.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">They consider that the Messenger&#8217;s recommendation to the faithful was merely adapted to the culture of the times, and should not be confused with the acts of worship (‘ibada). In their opinion, the hadith about observation did not establish an immutable rule of law, no more than it forbade the use of a calendar based on astronomical calculations. (4) (15)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">They note that, over long periods of Islamic history, the hadith under discussion was not interpreted to mean the visual observation of a new moon, but only the acquisition of information, according to credible sources, that the month had begun. (16) This opens entirely different vistas in the discussion of this question. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">They observe that Saudi Arabia’s Umm al Qura calendar (which is used for administrative purposes only) has been prepared for years based on the calculation of the schedules of sunset and moonset at the coordinates of Mecca, on the evening of the 29th day of each month. By convention, if the “conjunction” takes place before sunset at the coordinates of Mecca, and if the sun sets before the moon, this signals the beginning of a new month. Otherwise, the new month will begin on the next evening, after the completion of 30 days. (17) This procedure has little to do with the observation of the new moon. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">They also note that Muslims find it perfectly licit to use the Gregorian calendar to manage all their activities, and have been doing so for centuries, without having any misgivings about it. Why should the use of the solar Gregorian calendar, based on astronomical calculations, be considered as licit, whereas the use of the lunar Islamic calendar, based on the same astronomical calculations, would violate Islamic religious prescriptions?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Issue # 9: Is it licit to use a calendar based on calculations?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Egyptian cadi Ahmad Muhammad Shakir (18) is the spokesman and the theoretician of this school of thought. He is a distinguished jurist of the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, who was to become President of the Egyptian Supreme Court of the Shariah at the end of his career, and who remains to this day an author of reference in the field of hadith (19). He published, in 1939, a detailed legal opinion on the subject of the Islamic calendar, entitled: &#8220;The beginning of arab months&#8230; is it licit to determine it using astronomical calculations?&#8221; (20)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">According to him, the Messenger took into account the fact that the Muslim community of his time was « illiterate, not knowing how to write nor how to count. » So, he recommended to its members to observe the new moon to carry out their religious duties at the time of fasting and hajj. But the community evolved considerably over time, and some of its members even became experts in astronomy. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">According to the principle of Muslim law which states that « a rule is no longer applicable, when the factor which justified its existence has disappeared », the Messenger&#8217;s recommendation didn&#8217;t apply anymore to the Muslims, after they had learned to write and count and had ceased being illiterate. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Therefore, according to Shakir, contemporary ulamas commit an error of interpretation when they give to the Messenger&#8217;s hadith the same interpretation that applied at the time of Revelation, as if the hadith prescribed immutable rules. But, it has stopped being applicable to the Muslim community long ago, based on the principles of the shari&#8217;ah themselves.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Furthermore, Shakir refers to the principle of Muslim law according to which « what is relative cannot refute what is absolute, nor can it be preferred to it, according to the consensus of the ulamas. » The observation of the new moon with the naked eye is relative, and can be the subject of error, whereas the knowledge of the beginning of lunar months, based on astronomical calculations, is absolute, and belongs to the domain of certainty. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">He observes that numerous distinguished Muslim jurists have taken into account astronomical calculations data in reaching their decisions. He concludes that there is nothing in the shari&#8217;ah which opposes the use of calculations to determine the beginning of all lunar months, in all circumstances, and not only in special situations, as had been recommended by some ulamas. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">For Shakir, there can exist only one lunar month applicable in all countries of the world, based on astronomical calculations. This precludes the possibility that the beginning of the month should differ from one country to another. He adds that the use of the same pre-calculated calendar in all Muslim countries will give them an opportunity to celebrate all major Islamic events on the same day, throughout the world, thereby increasing their feeling of solidarity and unity as an “ummah”. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">It should be noted that Shakir’s reasoning parallels some of Ibn Taymiyyah’s (1263-1328) own observations on this subject, developed centuries earlier. In a discussion of the hadith of the Messenger according to which the Bedouins can neither write nor count, and must thus avoid using (astronomical) calculations, Ibn Taymiya observes that the argument may have been justified at the beginning of the 7th century, but he questions whether it could still apply to Muslims centuries later, after they had been at the vanguard of development of scientific knowledge, including in the field of astronomy. (21)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In recent years, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, a distinguished jurist, who is also President of the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR) became another well-known representative of this line of thinking. In 2004, he published an article entitled: &#8220;Astronomical calculations and determination of the beginning of months&#8221; (22) in which he expressed his full support for the use of calculations in the establishment of the Islamic calendar. Throughout his analysis, he quoted extensively and approvingly the major legal arguments developed by cadi Shakir in his 1939 study. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The advocates of the use of calculations gained in strength, in the last few years, when the « Islamic Society of North America » (ISNA), the « Fiqh Council of North America » (FCNA) and the « European Council for Fatwa and Research » (ECFR) announced, in 2006 and 2007 respectively, their decision to use, from then on, a calendar based on calculations. (23) They justified their decision using the same type of legal reasoning which was pioneered by Shakir and further developed by al-Qaradawi in their respective studies. (24) (25)</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p><strong>Notes</strong> :<br />
(1) Al-Bokhary, Hadiths (3/119)<br />
(2) Karim Meziane et Nidhal Guessoum : La visibilité du croissant lunaire et le ramadan, La Recherche n° 316, janvier 1999, pp. 66-71<br />
(3) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Moonsighting.com</span></a><br />
(4) Allal el Fassi : « Aljawab assahih wannass-hi al-khaliss ‘an nazilati fas wama yata’allaqo bimabda-i acchouhouri al-islamiyati al-arabiyah », a report prepared at the request of King Hassan II of Morocco, Rabat 1965 (36 p.), with no indication of editor<br />
(5) Abi alfayd Ahmad al-Ghomari : Tawjih alandhar litaw-hidi almouslimin fi assawmi wal iftar, 160p, 1960, Dar al bayareq, Beyrouth, 2nd ed. 1999<br />
(6) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/methods.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Procedure of observation of the new moon by country</span></a><br />
(7) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/1428rmd.html"><span lang="EN-GB">The observation of the new moon of Ramadan 1428 by country</span></a><br />
(8) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/1428shw.html"><span lang="EN-GB">The observation of the new moon of Shawwal 1428 by country</span></a><br />
(9) Nidhal Guessoum, Mohamed el Atabi and Karim Meziane: Ithbat acchouhour alhilaliya wa mouchkilate attawqiti alislami, 152p., Dar attali&#8217;a, Beyrouth, 2nd ed., 1997<br />
(10) Emile Biémont, Rythmes du temps, Astronomie et calendriers, De Borck, 2000, 393p<br />
(11) In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Bedouins used a lunar calendar based on a year of 12 months. But they added to it, beginning in 412, a movable 13th month (whose concept was borrowed from the Jewish calendar), in order to make the month of hajj correspond to the autumn season. After major abuses were associated with these adjustments, the Koran set the number of months in the year to 12 and prohibited the intercalation of a 13th month. The Koranic verses are as follows:<br />
(Koran 9: 36) “The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year), so ordained by Him the day He created the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred: that is the straight usage. So wrong not yourselves therein, and fight the Pagans all together as they fight you all together. But know that Allah is with those who restrain themselves”.<br />
(Koran 9: 37) “Verily the transposing (of a prohibited month) is an addition to Unbelief: the Unbelievers are led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year, and forbidden another year, in order to adjust the number of months forbidden by Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course seems pleasing to them. But Allah guideth not those who reject Faith”.<br />
(12) Muhammad Mutawalla al-Shaârawi: Fiqh al-halal wal haram (édité par Ahmad Azzaâbi), Dar al-Qalam, Beyrouth, 2000, p. 88<br />
(13) <a href="http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contemporary/2003/10/article03.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Abderrahman al-Haj: « The faqih, the politician and the determination of lunar months » (in Arabic)</span></a><br />
(14) <a href="http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/islamic.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Helmer Aslaksen: The Islamic calendar</span></a><br />
(15) Sheikh Abdul Muhsen Al-Obaikan, a Councilor in the Ministry of Justice of Saudi Arabia, is clearly favourable to the use of modern technology to determine the beginning of months. He says : « Using the naked eye to determine the beginning and end of Ramadan is primitive in an age of modern science and technology. There is no other way to put it. It&#8217;s pure backwardness.&#8221; » (Anver Saad, « The Untold Story of Ramadhan Moon Sighting » Daily muslims, October 07, 2005)<br />
(16) Al-Ghazali: &#8216;Ihya’e &#8216;ouloum addine&#8217;, quoted in al-Ghomari, p 30<br />
(17) <a href="http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/ummalqura.htm"><span lang="EN-GB"> Van Gent : The Umm al Qura calendar</span></a><br />
(18) <a href="http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/history/1422/09/article17.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Ahmad Muhammad Shakir (biographical notice in Arabic)</span></a><br />
(19) <a href="http://www.sounna.com/article.php3?id_article=106"><span lang="EN-GB">An author of reference in the science of hadith (in French)</span></a><br />
(20) <a href="http://ahmadmuhammadshakir.blogspot.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Ahmad Shakir: « The beginning of Arab months … is it licit to determine it using astronomical calculations? » (published in arabic in 1939) reproduced by the daily « Al-Madina », October 13, 2006 (n° 15878)</span></a><br />
(21) Ibn Taymiyyah: Fiqh azzakat wa asseyyam, Dar al fikr al ‘arabi, Beyrouth, 1996, p. 133 ff. and p. 142 : Ibn Taymiyyah has a good knowledge of the astronomical facts. He rejects the use of a tabular calendar, in which months alternate between 30 days and 29 days in sequence, with the addition of a day every three years approximately. He explains that this calendar does not truthfully represent the astronomical facts, because it does not take into account the existence of series of two or three months of 30 days in a row, and at other times series of two or three months of 29 days in a row, as they happen, but only adjusts for them in the framework of a 30 year cycle. (p. 142)<br />
(22) <a href="http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contemporary/2004/10/article01b.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Yusuf al-Qaradawi: « Astronomical calculations and determination of the beginning of months » (in arabic)</span></a><br />
(23) <a href="http://www.fiqhcouncil.org/Default.aspx?tabid=55"><span lang="EN-GB">Fiqh Council of North America: Islamic lunar calendar</span></a><br />
(24) <a href="http://www.icbwayland.org/include/CalculationsFiqhPosition.pdf"><span lang="EN-GB">Zulfikar Ali Shah: The astronomical calculations: a fiqhi discussion</span></a><br />
(25) These developments were detailed in an article published by Tabsir.net on July 23, 2008 entitled: <a href="http://tabsir.net/?p=621#more-621"><span lang="EN-GB">Khalid Chraibi: Can the Umm al Qura calendar serve as a global Islamic calendar?</span></a></p>
<p><strong>References</strong> :<br />
<a href="http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/islamic.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Helmer Aslaksen: The Islamic calendar</span></a><br />
<a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/articles.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Moonsighting.com: Selected articles on the Islamic calendar</span></a></p>
<p><a href="http://www.icoproject.org/paper.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Islamic Crescent’s Observation Project (ICOP): Selected articles on the Islamic calendar</span></a><br />
<a href="http://www.icoproject.org/sau.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Mohamed Odeh: The actual Saudi dating system</span></a><br />
<a href="http://tabsir.net/?p=621#more-621"><span lang="EN-GB">Khalid Chraibi: Can the Umm al Qura calendar serve as a global Islamic calendar?</span></a><br />
Khalid Chraibi: It is time for the Islamic world to replace lunar uncertainty with scientific facts (SaudiDebate.com, September 5, 2007)</p>
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		<title>Can the Umm al Qura calendar serve as a global Islamic calendar?</title>
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		<description><![CDATA[Khalid Chraibi 23 July 2008 Tabsir.net See this article on Tabsir.net Over the past 50 years, the Arab League, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and other similar bodies presented their member States with over a half-dozen proposals aiming at the establishment of a common Islamic calendar. Although none of these proposals was adopted, [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=umaralkhayyam.wordpress.com&amp;blog=4411590&amp;post=18&amp;subd=umaralkhayyam&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><b><span style="font-size:15.5pt;" lang="EN-GB">Khalid Chraibi</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">23 July 2008</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><b>Tabsir.net</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><a href="http://tabsir.net/?p=621#more-621">See this article on Tabsir.net</a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">Over the past 50 years, the Arab League, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and other similar bodies presented their member States with over a half-dozen proposals aiming at the establishment of a common Islamic calendar. Although none of these proposals was adopted, efforts in search of a solution that could be satisfactory to all interested parties continue to this day. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">For its part, the Fiqh Council of North America (FCNA) was also regularly confronted<b> </b>with the responsibility of telling its Muslim American audience when to start fasting, when to celebrate « eid al-Fitr », « eid al-Adha », etc. After several years of study of the legal issues involved, it reached a decision, which it announced in August 2006, to use henceforth a pre-calculated Islamic calendar, taking into consideration the sightability of the new moon anywhere on Earth. (1) </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">First, it retains the well-known principle of unicity of horizons (matali&#8217;e) which states that it is sufficient to observe the new moon anywhere on Earth, in order to declare the beginning of a new lunar month, applicable in all areas in which the information is received. Second, it uses the International date line (IDL) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as its conventional point of reference to conduct its analysis. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">Based on the maps of sightability of the new moon in the various regions of Earth, which are now regularly prepared by professional astronomers, (2) FCNA reached the conclusion that when the conjunction took place before 12:00 noon (GMT), there was enough time left for the new moon to be seen in numerous areas on Earth where sunset took place long before sunset in North America. Since the criteria of sightability of the new moon were met in these areas, the new moon would be observed (or could have been observed if weather conditions had been adequate) long before sunset in North America.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">Therefore, the requirements of sightability of the new moon as set by the shari&#8217;ah would be respected, and the new lunar month could begin in North  America on sunset of the same day. On the other hand, if the conjunction took place after 12:00 noon GMT, the month would begin in North America on sunset of the following day. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">The FCNA decision aroused much interest in many Muslim countries, because it elegantly met the requirements of the traditional interpretation of the shari&#8217;ah, while making use of the state-of-the art know how in the field of astronomy to respond to the needs of the modern age. It was thought that this solution could be applicable in other Muslim countries, and could give them a chance to adopt the same pre-calculated Islamic calendar (prepared on an annual basis, long in advance), in order to fulfill all the religious duties as well as to manage all other tasks. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">An international conference was thus held in Morocco, in November 2006, to study the issues involved, with the participation of astronomers from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, UAE, Iran, Guinea, Libya, Morocco, and the USA. The overwhelming majority of the participants, including Saudi, Egypt, and Iran astronomers agreed that the calendar adopted by Fiqh Council of North America could be used as a Global Islamic Calendar. (3) (4) </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">But FCNA changed position in 2007 to align itself on a new decision by the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR), which used the same parameters as those of the Umm al Qura calendar (5) to determine the beginning of Islamic months. These parameters are as follows : the “conjunction” must take place “before sunset at the coordinates of Mecca” and “moonset must take place after sunset” at the same coordinates. (6) </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">FCNA and ECFR justify the adoption of the new parameters by their desire to help develop a consensus within the Muslim community throughout the world on issues of common interest, among which that of the calendar.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">From a methodological point of view, the substitution of the parameters of Umm al Qura calendar to those initially set by FCNA in its August 2006 decision has the following consequences:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">- The requirement that the “conjunction” take place “before sunset at the coordinates of Mecca” instead of 12:00 noon GMT, as previously specified by FCNA, adds 3 hours to the time period during which the conjunction will be taken into account. This improves the chances that the first day of the new month will immediately follow the day on which the conjunction takes place. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">- But, the requirement that “moonset take place after sunset” at the Mecca coordinates sets an unduly restrictive condition, which didn’t exist in FCNA parameters of 2006. It implies that the new moon will be potentially sightable at Mecca on the evening of the day of conjunction, whereas the FCNA based its reasoning on the fact that the new moon would be potentially sightable “somewhere on Earth”. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">According to FCNA, the data of the calendar thus obtained differs only marginally from the data developed using its methodology of August 2006. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">Concretely, the decisions of FCNA and ECFR have already had the following results: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">- The principle of use of a calendar based on calculations is officially sponsored by religious leaders who are well-known and respected within the Muslim community (7) (8) (9)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">- This principle is officially adopted by Islamic organizations whose legitimacy and credibility are unquestionable;</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">- The Muslim communities in Europe and America are willing to use this calendar to determine the beginning of all months, including those associated with religious events.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">The impact of these decisions, worldwide, will of course depend on the attitude of the various Muslim Governments towards them, since it is the latter which have the last word on such matters, each one in its territory.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">For example Saudi Arabia only uses the Umm al Qura calendar for administrative purposes. (5) It considers that it would be against the shari’ah to use it for the determination of religious dates, such as the beginning of Ramadan, eids al-Fitr and al-Adha, the dates associated with Hajj, the 1<sup>st</sup> of Muharram, etc.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">But, once the use of the calendar based on calculations becomes part and parcel of the culture of the Muslim community in Europe and America, won’t the minds in Saudi   Arabia be more open to the use of the Umm al Qura calendar for the determination of all lunar months, including those associated with religious occasions? </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;"><span lang="EN-GB">The initiatives of FCNA and ECFR may thus help many Muslim States develop, in time, a consensus about the adoption of a “Global Islamic calendar” for use by all Muslim communities in the world. (10)</span></p>
<p><i><b>Footnotes</b>:<br />
(1) <a href="http://www.fiqhcouncil.org/Default.aspx?tabid=55"><span lang="EN-GB">Fiqh Council of North America Islamic lunar calendar</span></a><br />
(2) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Moonsighting.com</span></a><br />
(3) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/1427zhj.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Morocco meeting: Breakthrough for global Islamic calendar</span></a><br />
(4) <a href="http://www.moonsighting.com/morocco-meeting.html"><span lang="EN-GB">Morocco meeting, November 2006, details</span></a><br />
(5) <a href="http://www.phys.uu.nl/%7Evgent/islam/ummalqura.htm"><span lang="EN-GB">Van Gent The Umm al Qura calendar</span></a><br />
(6) <a href="http://www.icbwayland.org/include/MoonsightingDecisionWeb.pdf"><span lang="EN-GB">Islamic Center of Boston, Wayland : Moonsighting Decision documents</span></a><br />
(7) <a href="http://www.islamonline.net/Arabic/contemporary/2004/10/article01b.shtml"><span lang="EN-GB">Yusuf al-Qaradawi : « Astronomical calculations and the determination of the beginning of months » (in Arabic)</span></a><br />
(8) <a href="http://www.icbwayland.org/include/CalculationsFiqhPosition.pdf"><span lang="EN-GB">Zulfikar Ali Shah The astronomical calculations: a fiqhi discussion</span></a><br />
(9) <a href="http://ahmadmuhammadshakir.blogspot.com/"><span lang="EN-GB">Ahmad Shakir : « The beginning of Arab months … is it legal to determine it using astronomical calculations? » (published in Arabic in 1939) reproduced in the Arab daily « Al-Madina », 13 october 2006 (n° 15878)</span></a><br />
(10) This article updates a previous article on the subject entitled : “It is time for the Islamic world to replace lunar uncertainty with scientific facts” published by SaudiDebate.com on 5 September 2007 and reproduced at <a href="http://aster77.wordpress.com/2008/04/29/towards-a-global-islamic-calendar-2/"><span lang="EN-GB">Towards a global Islamic calendar</span></a><br />
</i></p>
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